In the records of the Achaemenid era, relatively little attention has been paid to social conditions compared to governmental and royal matters. This oversight can be attributed to the nature of the sources, which primarily focus on the state and its rulers.
This article endeavors to explore the ordinary lives of the people during this period, drawing from available sources. Since the family unit serves as the cornerstone of any society, examining Achaemenid households can provide a general and relatively clear understanding of the society of that era.
1- Urban and Rural Settings
The structure of Achaemenid cities and villages, revealed not only through archaeological excavations but also by studying clay tablets, offers valuable insights. Fortunately, the discovery of administrative tablets at Persepolis allows for primary source research for the first time. According to reports by Dio Chrysostom (Book 10, Paragraph 21), population density was very high in Parsa, the capital of Fars province. The administrative tablets record approximately 400 settlements. However, pinpointing the exact locations of these settlements is nearly impossible. For instance, alongside major centers like Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae, Shiraz has been an important city since ancient times. Following Shiraz, “Niriz Eychiye” is identified as present-day Niris in eastern Pars province.
It can be said that numerous villages and settlements existed, especially in the vicinity of major cities. Apart from major highways like the Royal Road, which connected major cities, smaller and less significant roads also linked these settlements. Information regarding the population of each city and village is scant, but what matters here is primarily the constituent element of these settlements: the homes and residences of the people.
2- Dwellings
The vast Achaemenid Empire encompassed over 20 nations, each with its own way of life, customs, and traditions. In a region like Pars, with its diverse population due to the migration of various tribes, we encounter various lifestyles. However, from a general perspective, we can arrive at a reliable average. The remnants of royal buildings and the artifacts unearthed from the Iranian governance era in various cities provide valuable information. In the excavations of Susa, sections of the artisan neighborhood with metal smelting furnaces have been unearthed. Remnants of Babylonian houses can provide insight into the housing conditions of that era. We can extrapolate a similar scenario for Parsi houses.
By examining the architectural style used in the palaces of that period, we can infer an image of ordinary homes. Of course, assuming that the dimensions of the people’s homes were much smaller and less adorned than the grandiose royal structures. Even the Treasury of Persepolis (according to Professor Kakh) can be seen as a representation of a Persian’s home. The difference lies in the oversized dimensions of the palace and the absence of columns that were not erected in ordinary homes. In Pars, houses were typically one or two rooms. Iranian houses have always, and to this day, included a courtyard, providing residents with a sheltered space to enjoy the outdoors away from the sun or rain. (From the words of Darius, by Heide Marie Kakh)
3- Nutrition
Regarding the diet of the people of that era, it must be noted that the primary sources introduce “barley” as a staple food. Alongside barley, each family received a quantity of meat and also wine throughout the year. Barley was used to make bread and was also used for cooking soups. Sometimes meat was added, and logically, it was used on important days and celebrations. Therefore, families were compelled to keep either sheep or goats alive, requiring a stable alongside their courtyard or to sell them in the market and exchange them for other goods when meat was needed again. This matter differed concerning grains and wine because of their longer shelf life compared to meat; they were stored in large ceramic jars, half of which were buried underground.
Examples of these jars and vessels have been found, and according to experts, the largest specimen was discovered in Tang-e Bolaghi. Barley was ground between two millstones. The lower stone had a rectangular cavity and was similar to those found in the eastern lands today. Simple examples of stone mortars and a bronze one have been found in the Treasury of Persepolis.
4- Hygiene Standards of Families
Evidence suggests that hygiene standards in Achaemenid households were high, to the extent that Babylonian urban houses had bathrooms. The floor of the bathhouse was coated with bitumen up to halfway up the wall, and a sloping sewer system made of ceramic pipes easily carried bathwater and waste outside. The majority of water consumption was supplied from qanats (underground aqueducts) passing through cities and villages. Since ancient times, the four natural elements – water, air, earth, and fire – have been considered sacred in Indian and Iranian rituals, and contaminating them was deemed sinful. As water was considered the primary element in hygiene and disease transmission, its cleanliness played a crucial role in raising the community’s health standards. Therefore, no reports of contagious diseases such as cholera and plague have been recorded from the Achaemenid era. Prominent depictions on the Persepolis reliefs show servants carrying towels and vessels, possibly containing scented oil, for the king to use after bathing. On the other hand, in the royal palaces, notable figures are seen carrying food into the palace. A noticeable hygiene practice in these images is the use of hats that extend their brims to cover the mouth, preventing food contamination from breathing.
In such a society, ordinary individuals did not live like kings, but the observance of health principles by the courtiers indicates the importance given to hygiene by the kings, and undoubtedly, such rulers also paid attention to the health of their society. Besides adhering to basic hygiene principles, the entire Achaemenid society – both men and women – valued personal grooming. Combs from that period were made of ivory for the wealthy and wood for others, and teeth were always made coarse on one side and fine on the other, similar to combs today. (From the words of Darius, by Heide Marie Kakh)
Hygiene was not a class issue, and all members of society, whether rich or poor, observed health principles, with the only difference being the type of tools used. Since social hygiene requires education, we see that teaching health principles was an essential part of child-rearing in the oral education system of families. Xenophon says, “…the effects of this upbringing, which are contentment in life and special attention to exercises and the avoidance of bodily indulgence, are still visible in them. Even today, among the Persians, spitting on the ground, cleaning one’s nose, or turning away for nature’s call in front of others is considered a significant disgrace. And naturally, if they did not give their bodies complete satisfaction with food or prepare their bodies through physical exercises, the practice of these customs would not be implemented.” (Cyrus’s Letter, Xenophon)
5- Occupations, Wages, and Taxes
Setting aside courtly occupations, the most important professions were agriculture, gardening, and animal husbandry. However, a considerable number of wealthy individuals were also engaged in trade and commerce. Skilled artisans, along with laborers, were contracted for various artistic works, from architecture and intricate metalwork to glassmaking and metal casting, coming from distant cities to the center. Naturally, due to the long duration of their work, they and their families resided in the capital.
During the Achaemenid period, many women were employed, and they even supervised most of the textile workshops and tailoring. Women sometimes received higher wages than men, indicating that the Achaemenid government did not discriminate between men and women, and everyone received wages commensurate with their work and responsibilities. Professor Kakh says, “Women working in royal tailoring workshops received wages based on the type of clothing they sewed; simple clothes, fine clothes, and very fine clothes. The wages received by female workers monthly were 50 liters of barley, 300 liters of wine, and one-third of a goat or sheep.”
Apparently, at the beginning of Darius’s reign, coins were not yet prevalent for purchasing goods, so salaries for employees and workers were paid in commodities such as barley, wheat, meat, etc. During the reign of Xerxes, two-thirds of the salary were given in goods and one-third in money. Later, during the same king’s reign, the commodity wage was reduced to only one-third. Therefore, it took almost half a century for coins to replace goods and produce.
From available documents, it is evident that children also underwent apprenticeships from a young age, around 10-12 years old, gradually entering the labor market.
People paid taxes according to the wages they received. For this purpose, the details of each individual and the amount of wages they received were recorded in government centers. Additionally, taxes were levied on agricultural and horticultural products, proportionate to the amount of produce. There is mention of a food ration document for a government official who was traveling to count the population. Perhaps this census was conducted for estimating the army in future wars, or preparing for rebellion or taxation. According to Dr. Kakh, alongside this, property ownership statistics existed, which formed the basis for determining taxes.
6- Government Facilities and Assistance to the People
The Achaemenid government, in addition to wages, provided facilities for the people in various areas to make life easier. For example, since working women could not take care of their children during working hours, there were kindergartens near their workplaces where mothers could leave their children and pick them up after work. Also, mothers were entitled to maternity leave and received wages during this period. Moreover, during periods of drought and famine, taxes were waived, and simple laborers, who were mostly foreigners and had little financial capability, were given extra rations every few months.
All of these, except for the payments that kings and rulers granted to the people during various celebrations and events, were without a doubt impossible in the Achaemenid administrative and judicial system without supervision and understanding of government affairs. The king even had control over all his expenses, including his travel expenses and those of his companions. In this system, breaking the law was severely punished, and honesty and loyalty were rewarded appropriately.
The final section of the Darius’s tomb inscription concludes this writing; “Know, O man, who you are, what your capabilities are, and how your behavior is. Do not think that secret whispers and behind-the-scenes conversations are the best words. Pay more attention to what you hear openly. Know, O man, do not consider the best work to be that of the powerful, and look more at what supports the weak.” (From the words of Darius, by Kakh)
Kam Austine 
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